Rape – An Invasion
(Under Dependency Theory)
Rape is an invasion in the regime
of Women’s sovereignty, i.e. as an individual and as a community. Though, there are strong laws that
provide preferential status to women, but still such laws failed to restrict
violence against women whether domestic or workplaces or on streets even though
women are so vocal and active towards their rights and privileges. These stringent laws instead of
curtailing crimes against women has proliferated more social crisis such as
Broken marriage, Gender Disparity, Gender Conflict, Proliferation of Gay
fabric, Hate crimes, sexual abuse at Workplace, etc.
The definition of Rape within the legal perspective is a type of sexual
assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more
person against another person without that person's consent. The act may be
carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person
who is incapable of valid consent, such as one who is unconscious,
incapacitated, or below the legal age of consent.[1]
This definition is certainly
invasion on the Women’s sexuality, but the term rape is more than sexual
invasion, it is rather an invasion to her sovereignty. This Sovereignty embeds her with self,
family, society and nation that provide her identity as individuality and to a
gender of the society. The regime of
her feminism that gives her the identity of women to be wife and mother besides
her individualism cannot be limited to the rape on sexuality.
Sexual violence is one factor of
Rape against women. This is towards as
individual and as a Community. Though
there has been huge activism in the field of Women’s Right towards freedom of
choice and towards her Right to her body and also towards her Economic
independence and Political participation.
There have been substantial preferential Laws are made blanket
protection in domestic arena and also at workplace, but none of these
preferential laws could protect women from the violence of sexual, physical,
economic and political.
Prior to evaluate the Laws to
combat Rapes in the society, it is important to define the term “Rape” within
the spectrum of Political Science. Rape
is an invasion to a Sovereign of the Regime either through violence, force or
manipulation against the consent towards plundering of the Regime.
A nation is a macro regime and
women are micro regime (Macro-Micro Theory).
Rape is an invasion to the micro regime, i.e. women to plunder her
sovereignty, i.e. her body through force, violence and manipulation to exploit
her body or to intrude her sovereign either to satisfy the instinct or to
destroy the morality or revenge. The
tremendous rise in Rape graph is to oppress and terrorize the community of
women.
Historically, women were raped
randomly as War-crime or intrusion or oppression any community during
riots. These political rapes were mainly
done to demoralize the community or the nation.
In becomes a challenge to the manhood of the community by destroying
their women sovereignty.
In the era of Globalisation, it
is important to study the condition of women at Global level where the world is
divided into three sections of Core, Periphery and Semi-periphery nations based
on Dependency theory as Global Economic Policy.
It is also important to understand how the Global Economic Policy has
influenced the condition of Women irrespective of the region in the World. Rape
signifies when you seize the right to dignified life through violence whether
it is sexual, financial, terror or threat to life.
Rape and Cruelty against women
Three pattern of cruelty against
women, i.e. domestic violence, street violence and violence at workplace.
Domestic Violence is not limited to Gender orientation;
it is always a victimization of the dependency.
These dependencies could be women, children or old parents and even men
in the family. Hence, the domestic
violence should be studied within the perspective of Family than gender. Generally, women are the victim of domestic
violence due to their dependency on the family and their physiology. These women could be daughter, wife and
mother.
The three factors that influence
the oppression / violence in the family are instincts to oppress, economy either
due to scarcity or greed and environment of coercion due to political
instability or governance inadequacies.
Instinct to oppress is a natural
factor and can be a patriarchy in nature, i.e. Powerful against Weak. Women being weak in the physiology become the
victim of oppression. The abuse of
children become a psychological factor or tool to oppress women to surrender to
the instinct of oppression and also make children as victim within the ambit of
domestic violence. Similarly, the old
parents irrespective of gender that are liabilities of the family become the
victim of instinct of escapism from the responsibilities and hence violence
whether verbal, physical and environmental becomes a tool to repress them. Hence, it is not the gender that is abused in
the arena of domestic ambit, but it is the instinct of oppression that makes
women as victim.
Another factor is economy, i.e.
the factor of scarcity and/or greed.
Economy of the family paves a vital factor towards the oppression or
violence in the domestic ambit.
Inadequate money, toxic habits, illicit relations and greed force to
exploit women at home. Inadequate money
leads to frustration and domestic area becomes a burden for the bread-earner
and violence becomes the tool to drain the frustration or escapism from the
responsibilities. Greed becomes main
cause of the domestic violence, whether it is for dowry harassment or the lust
of women for illogical demands or beyond the ambit of economic capabilities of
the bread earner.
The third factor is environment
that influences the causes of all miseries of women. The first and foremost reason is political
instability that creates economic crisis that leads to instability of the
resource generation at the micro regime.
When there is a recession in economy, the effect is bound to influence
women at home. This pave ways for all
the illicit activities such as prostitution within marriage, keep culture and
push towards the sex-trade. These activities
are forced than volunteer. When they are
forced, violence becomes tool.
The second most causes of
miseries as the condition of women are due to Human Trafficking, which is an
Institutional Crime due to Global Political Economy under the Dependency Theory
of Core, Semi Periphery and Periphery relations. Human trafficking whether for internal
migration or global illicit migration makes women and children Forced Labour
for sexual slavery or hazardous industrial labour. To
compel women and children in the domestic arena towards trafficking for forced
labour, manipulation or violence is used that make women and children either
run away or being caught in the nexus of traffickers.
Street Crimes which are
beyond the domestic arena, i.e. in the family system, are treated as Street
crimes. These crimes are due to
shattered social fabric and unaccountability due to toxicities, hatred and
restlessness due to reasons of governance inadequacies of State and Society.
Street Crimes against women can
be segmented into three aspects, i.e. acid throw, violence in-street and sexual
abuse at workplace. Acid throw is the
most heinous crime at par with terrorism in any land. It destroys the civility and creates an
environment of fear and insecurity. The
same situation is felt by women who become target due to conflict or hate. Acid throw is a hate crime. The most pathetic of this aspect that the
victim not only destroy the normal life, but face the social alienation and
also goes through the trauma besides the physical, mental and financial
pain. These women are simply orphan in
the State-system because the victim of crime neither gets justice due to
inadequacies in Criminal Justice System and not the ownership by the State
towards rehabilitation and treatment.
Another factor of Crime against
Women is Drugs and Alcohol due to shattered society. A society without the social administration
led to social behavior beyond accountability.
Freedom without norms leads to directionless society and this is further
fueled by toxic of drugs and alcohol which make women a victim due to their
physiology. The ungoverned instinct
leads to youth into crime nexus that facilitate their life-style at the cost of
others’ liberty.
The
alcohol-drug abuse-violence nexus presents itself in several distinctly
different facets: alcohol and other drugs of abuse may act on brain mechanisms
that cause a high-risk individual to engage in aggressive and violent behavior.
Individuals with costly heroin or cocaine habits may commit violent crimes in
order to secure the resources for further drug purchases. Narcotic drug
dealers, but not alcohol vendors, practice their trade in a violent manner.
Alcohol, narcotics, hallucinogens, and psychomotor stimulants differ
substantially from each other and in the way that they are related to different
kinds of violent and aggressive behavior.[2]
The violence against women, which is also termed as Regime is prone to
victimizing on the street crimes due to physiology. Migration community which has an easy escape
from the crime scene is also responsible for the rise of crime against women.
The
third aspect of street crime is abuse at workplace. Women are abused at workplace is mainly to
facilitate the business promotion where corruption has become a business culture
than expertise and excellence. Women are
used towards facilitation to clients and other associates. Another factor is the culture of alternate
women due to abuse of power and work ethics. A compulsive approach towards career makes few
to compromise and accept sexual abuse as work culture. But such compromised work culture might
generate business, but against the human resources crisis since compromised
work culture pollute the professional environment and ultimately harm
organization in a longer run.
Institutional Crime is mainly related to human trafficking, which
is an Organised Crime that facilitates Global Economic Policy based on
dependency theory. Brain drain through
licit migration and forced labour through illicit migration is a key tool
towards abuse of humanity who are not only become a victim of forced labour,
but also loose their organs in the wake of organ smuggling. This institutional crime is deliberately done
by the Policies of the Government that refuses to own their population and
leave them in the hand of traffickers who abuse men, women and children by
threat and violence to fetch their requisites towards periphery crimes,
smuggling, trafficking and arms conflicts.
Globalisation and Condition of Women
Though Globalisation has made the
World a global village, but the fact is Globalisation has made women more
destitute in tune of illegal migration towards forced labour and sex trade.
The key findings
by UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Person, 2012 indicates how the women
are maximum victims of human trafficking amongst other groups of men and
children in the era of Globalisation..
Ø
Between 2007 and 2010,
almost half of victims detected worldwide were trafficked across orders within
their region of origin. Some 24 per cent were trafficked inter-regionally (i.e.
to a different region).
Ø
Domestic trafficking
accounts for 27 per cent of all detected cases of trafficking in persons
worldwide.
Ø
The Middle
East is the region reporting the greatest proportion of victims
trafficked from other regions (70 per cent). Victims from the largest number of
origin countries were detected in Western and Central
Europe.
Ø
The trafficking flow
originating in East Asia remains the most
prominent transnational flow globally. East Asian victims were detected in
large numbers in many countries worldwide.
Ø
Victims from Eastern
Europe, Central Asia and South America were
detected in a wide range of countries within and outside their region of
origin, although in comparatively lower numbers outside their region of origin.
Ø
Almost all human
trafficking flows originating in Africa are either intraregional (with Africa
and the Middle East as their destination) or directed towards Western
Europe.
Ø
One hundred and
thirty-four countries and territories worldwide have criminalized trafficking
by means of a specific offence in line with the Trafficking in Persons
Protocol.
Ø
The number of
convictions for trafficking in persons is in general very low. Notably, of the
132 countries covered, 16 per cent did not record a single conviction between
2007 and 2010.
Ø
Women account for
55-60 per cent of all trafficking victims detected globally; women and girls
together account for about 75 per cent.
Ø
Twenty-seven per cent
of all victims detected globally are children. Of every three child victims,
two are girls and one is a boy.
Ø
In general,
traffickers tend to be adult males and nationals of the country in which they
operate, but more women and foreign nationals are involved in trafficking in
persons than in most other crimes.
Ø
Women traffickers are
often involved in the trafficking of girls and tend to be used for low-ranking
activities that have a higher risk of detection.
Ø
Trafficking for sexual
exploitation is more common in Europe, Central Asia and the Americas. Trafficking
for forced labour is more frequently detected in Africa and the Middle East, as
well as in South and East Asia and the
Pacific.
Ø
Trafficking for the
purpose of sexual exploitation accounts for 58 per cent of all trafficking
cases detected globally, while trafficking for forced labour accounts for 36
per cent. The share of detected cases of trafficking for forced labour has
doubled over the past four years.
Ø
Victims trafficked for
begging account for about 1.5 per cent of the victims detected globally.
Trafficking for the removal of organs has been detected in 16 countries in all
regions of the world.
Ø
Victims of 136
different nationalities were detected in 118 countries worldwide between 2007
and 2010.
Ø
Approximately 460
different trafficking flows were identified between 2007 and 2010.
The key findings indicate two
major points, i.e. the land of origin and the land of destination. The land of destination is called Core
nations and the land of origin is treated as Periphery nation. The pattern of Violence against women differs
from Core nations and Periphery nations due to the flow of human trafficking
and the pattern of Economy, since it is a relation between buyer and
seller. Another key factor in the core
and periphery nations is the role of semi-periphery nations. Semi-periphery is the transit nations to the
supply chain. This supply chain is seen
within Region, Intra-Region and Global.
Pattern of Violence against Women
vary from Core Nations to Periphery Nations.
Core nations are victims of Street Crimes where as Periphery nations are
mostly victims of Domestic Violence. The
reason behind the change of pattern of violence is Migration. For example in the following study on rape in
America[3] states.
“Our findings indicate that about 20 million out of 112
million women (18.0%) in the U.S.
have ever been raped during their lifetime. This includes an estimated 18
million women who have been forcibly raped, nearly 3 million women who have
experienced drug-facilitated rape, and 3 million women who have experienced
incapacitated rape1. During the past year alone, over 1 million women in the U.S. have been
raped: over 800,000 who have been forcibly raped, nearly 200,000 who have
experienced drug-facilitated rape, and about 300,000 who have experienced
incapacitated rape. Although this study offers limited insight into changes in
the prevalence of rape over time, our estimates do not appear to support the
widely held belief that rape has significantly declined in recent decades.
One of the more striking findings of this study was that
only 16% of all rapes were reported to law enforcement. Notably, victims of
drug-facilitated or incapacitated rape were somewhat less likely to report to
the authorities than victims of forcible rape. Major barriers to reporting rape
to law enforcement included: not wanting others to know about the rape, fear of
retaliation, and perception of insufficient evidence, uncertainty about how to
report, and uncertainty about whether a crime was
committed or whether harm was intended. Injury was reported for 52% of forcible
rape incidents and 30% of drug-facilitated or incapacitated rape incidents
assessed. Medical care was received following 19% of forcible rape incidents
and 21% of drug-facilitated or incapacitated rape incidents. Perpetrators were
known to the victim in a high percentage of forcible rape, drug-facilitated,
and incapacitated rape incidents.”
Whereas, the pattern of violence
in the developing nations, i.e. periphery nations as shown in the following
study by WHO[4]
“Population-level surveys based on reports from victims provide the most accurate estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner violence and sexual violence in non-conflict settings. The WHO Multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women in 10 mainly developing countries found that, among women aged 15-49:
- between 15% of women in Japan and 71% of women in Ethiopia reported physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime;
- between 0.3–11.5% of women reported experiencing sexual violence by a non-partner since the age of 15 years;
- the first sexual experience for many women was reported as forced – 17% in rural Tanzania, 24% in rural Peru, and 30% in rural Bangladesh.
Risk factors for both intimate partner and sexual violence include:
- lower levels of education (perpetration of sexual violence and experience of sexual violence);
- exposure to child maltreatment (perpetration and experience);
- witnessing family violence (perpetration and experience );
- antisocial personality disorder (perpetration);
- harmful use of alcohol (perpetration and experience);
- having multiple partners or suspected by their partners of infidelity (perpetration); and
- attitudes that are accepting of violence and gender inequality (perpetration and experience).”
If a comparative study is done on both Core and Periphery
regions, the cause of violence against women varies. The women become victim in the hand of toxic
of drugs in the core nations, whereas, in periphery nations it is mainly due to
poverty and under-development.
Migrations to the core nations
whether licit or illicit have created huge social disorder in the Core Nations,
which starts from broken families and shattered society. Absence of social administration system and
broken families, there is a huge lapse on virtue development process resulting
to constant inflow of migrating communities.
These migration communities in the absence of family system become a big
market for Sex Trade.
The important factor of the social chaos in the Core nation
is Gender disparity. The individualism
rules the society which leads to the lapses of tolerance and acceptability of
the partner. Further a huge rise of
living standard makes economy determine relationship and hence a throw away
tendencies that leads to the broken relationships. Broken relationship leads to step-relations
which always destroy the peace which leads to tendencies of escapism and take
the shelter of drugs and toxic. The
submission to toxic further leads to crimes and immoral activities.
The pattern of Economy plays a decisive role in the
condition of population in any region. Core nations, advanced in technologies
and Corporatism in Economy have made the State-system feudal in nature. The feudalistic approach always creates a
fabric of serf and control of resources.
The illicit economy becomes parallel to licit economy that serves the
interest of the Corporate. Absence of
State-control over economy in the wake of liberalization and shrinking of
Welfare State, a huge population in the absence of skills become human resources
of illicit activities. Illicit
activities destroy the morality and ultimately it is women who suffer due to
its physiology in the wake of absence of social system.
Similarly, the condition of the periphery nations is also
influenced by its economic and its demographic pattern. Most of the periphery nations are rich in
natural resources and a wide tribal population and also extend the legacy of
colonial history. Periphery nations
being rich in natural resources and bio-diversity, remain the attraction for
the Core nations to facilitate their Industrial aspiration and captivation of
resources and market. The backwardness
in the periphery nations that led to poverty in the region is due to non-compatibility
with the modern economy. The acute
ignorance and insensitivity of the Political system under the wake of Democratic
process made these populations just as receiving end and absolutely
neglected. Absence of appropriate
economy for the tribal and rural population made them victim of human
trafficking that facilitate the economy of the Core nations towards forced
labour and sexual slavery. Children are
trafficked and abducted for all the periphery economy where adults refuse to
work due to its hazardous condition.
Violence is a tool to control these neglected population.
Institutionalized violence is mainly seen in the
semi-periphery nations which are also called transit nations. The economy of the transit nations mainly
depend on the facilitation the need of the core nations and training the
population of the peripheries accordingly.
The industrial development of the semi-periphery nations limit to the
status of vendors to cater the industrial need of the core nations. But the conditions of women do not get better
in these transit nations. The mix
patterns of violence against women are visible, i.e. from the domestic violence
to street violence along with institutional violence.
Interestingly, Global Economic Policy destroyed the indigenous
economy of the entire region whether it is Core, Periphery or Semi-periphery
nations. A larger portion of the
population is directionless due to Corporatism of Economy and Corruption in
Political system under Democratic process which has led to a complete
directionless society. Hence, the global economic policies have greater impact
on the condition of women since it is women who are the nurturer of the society
and in the absence of provision; every equation in the social development gets
stalled.
Empowering Women through Preferential Laws
India
has overhauled its rape laws to introduce new crimes, expand the definition of
rape, and toughen up punishments for the perpetrators of sexual violence —
instituting long awaited changes brought to the public eye by a series of
brutal, highly public gang rapes.[5]
There is a huge concerns raised on the issue of rape as a
cruelty against women. Here the amended
Law on Rape to expand its spectrum to punish harsh to the offenders. Anti-rape
Bill which provides for life term and even death sentence for rape convicts
besides stringent punishment for offences like acid attacks, stalking and
voyeurism.[6]
The new law is a combination of just thinking about gender
and existing patriarchal attitudes in society, as well as those ingrained in
the colonial Indian Penal Code of 1860.
So "outraging the modesty of a woman" remains a legitimate
legal standard, though some new crimes based on a women's right to bodily
integrity and to be free of sexual harassment have also been incorporated.[7]
But this new Law failed to visualize the cause of rapes and
became a preferential law to protect the modesty of a woman. Earlier, while brides were burning due to
dowry also brought stringent laws that protected women by way of Dowry
Prohibition Act[8], but
this law still could not prevent bride killing for the lust and greed by
in-laws. Section 498A[9]
brought a guaranteed protection of women in marriage, but still this law
neither protects women in marriage nor able to prevent broken marriage. This has further created Gender Disparity.
The criminal law as contained in the IPC and the Immoral
Traffic Prevention Act 1986 perceive prostitution as a necessary evil which
should be contained but not be completely prohibited. The laws do criminalise
the outward manifestations like soliciting, brothel-keeping, trafficking in
women for prostitution, but do not ban prostitution per se. Formulated in this
manner, women in prostitution are exposed to harassment by the police and
exploitation by pimps and customers. The law still has not responded to women's
demands for recognising that women in prostitution have made the best economic
choice possible in the circumstances and that prostitution should be
decriminalised to protect their legal rights.30 It continues to view
prostitution as a necessary social evil nurtured by immorality and illicit
relationships.[10]
Sections 372 and 373 of the IPC declare as offences the
selling or buying of minor/s for the purpose of prostitution. These sections
apply to males and females below the age of eighteen years but provide extra
protection to women. Explanations to
these sections lay down the presumption that possession of a female by a
prostitute or a brothel-keeper is for the purpose of prostitution. These sections also apply if the minor is
sold or purchased with the intent that such minor, at any age, shall be
employed or used for illicit intercourse or for any unlawful and immoral
purpose. For the purposes of these sections illicit intercourse is limited to
heterosexual intercourse between two persons not united by marriage.[11]
The devadasi system
was outlawed in all of India
in 1988, yet some devadasis still
practice illegally.[12]
The practice of devdasi system termed illegal, but there is a constant advocacy
of legalizing prostitution. The
institutionalized of prostitution through Human Trafficking to the regional,
intra-regional and global level is being practices shows the legislation to
curb the crimes is beyond the understanding of the Social system.
Similarly, Article 24 of India's constitution prohibits
child labour. Additionally, various laws and the Indian Penal Code, such as the
Juvenile Justice (care and protection) of Children Act-2000, and the Child
Labour (Prohibition and Abolition) Act-1986 provide a basis in law to identify,
prosecute and stop child labour in India.[13]
Still this law could not protect children from the abuses of forced labour of
hazardous industry and child prostitution.
The blooming crime of children’s abduction and trafficking is an indicator
that laws are meant to decorative legislation and not part of the governance
system. Any law, which is beyond the
ambit of social system is a “Dictatorship of Law” which gets bounced by the
society and creates a lot of social chaos since law without the endorsement from
the society cannot deliver for good and it cannot be done through pressure
group. Similar things happened with
Preferential Laws for Women. It has a
dictatorship of Law against Men and hence it has bounced back and further
created gender disparity.
Touch Theory and Human relations
Touching is an
integral part of human behaviour; from the moment of birth until they die,
people need to be touched and to touch others. Touching is an intimate action
that implies an invasion of the individual's personal, private space.[14] Touch is an important aspect of life and to
touch soft is a relation bonding of men and women. Women are soft, so it compels men to touch
her, whereas children as soft that make women to pamper her. This is a chain of touch that paves way to
the family system. The broken marriage
and gender disparity has given a scarcity to the aspiration of touch and that
is why women are targeted through coercion to satisfy the basic instinct to
touch soft.
Sudden growth in
the homosexuality tendencies is mainly due to the disparity of family system
that satisfies the aspiration of touch.
Buying sex is expensive and hence the tendency to manipulate towards the
same sex or the coercive sex has gone up drastically.
In a survey answered by hundreds of rape and
sexual assault support agencies, they estimated that 93.7 percent of male rape
perpetrators are male and 6.3 percent were female. (Greenberg, Bruess and
Haffner, 575) Many people do not believe
that male rape by a female exists. However, penile erection can be achieved
under emotional duress such as anger, fear, and pain even if the male does not
wish it. (Greenberg, Bruess and Haffner, 576; Lips, 234)
Lesbians report “physically or mentally coercive
sex” more often than do gay men. One study found that thirty-one percent of
lesbians reported forced sexual encounters versus twelve percent of gay men.
(Scholars have presumed that lesbians and gay men disagree on what is
considered “aggressive.” Often, lesbian reports contain statements of how they
were emotionally abused as well as physically abused. Moreover, lesbians are
often times more “sensitized” to “sexual coercion” and can more easily identify
it, while gay men more often consider “coercion as fair play.”) (Schwartz and
Rutter, 67)
This is an indicator that Rape is not a Gender
issue, but a tendency to invade and oppress and scarcity to fulfill the
biological need. It is important to
evaluate these instincts to oppress and provide an appropriate mechanism to
curb the instinct of oppression through social administration and
accountability. Laws are tools of
Governance system, but not the governance system in itself. Hence, while making legislation it is
important to understand the social system inclusive to all, without which
legislation will lose its implementation values and create a resistance towards
Law. Rape is a serious issue and should
not be limited to sexual coercion and women’s appeasement through preferential
laws that will create gender disparity.
Conclusion
Violence against women is a universal phenomenon
irrespective of the pattern of development, i.e. Developed, developing or
under-developed nations. Only the pattern
of crime differs due to economy’s influence in the Social system.
Economic independence has not provided women a secured
life. It is only helped her towards
purchasing power and self-decisive. But
physical security cannot be purchased.
It is a social system that is protected by the State-system. It is not
possible to protect women by oppressing men because it is men who protect women
from men in the society.
Women are nation-builder.
She creates next generation and nurtures them towards the continuity of
the human race. She is a catalyst that
binds three generations, i.e. parents, self and children. If she is destroyed, whole society will be
shattered and hence leads to absence of virtues. Absence of virtues leads to economy collapse
and further fall in Political system.
Violence against women is a serious issue since it makes
her insecure and she is not able to focuses on her duty to which she is born
with, i.e. continuity of the human race and society- building and bring
civility in the society. Women are not
alien from men. It is men and women that
make humanity.
Reference:
“Female Asian Migrants : A Growing But Vulnerable
Workforce.” 1996. World of Work,
(15):pp.16-17
Foundation of Women’s Forum. 1988, Trafficking in Women for the Purpose of Sexual
Exploitation,
Stockholm.
Pyle, Jean L. 1998, “Women and Home Work” in Handbook of the Sociology of Gender,
Janet S,
Chafetz, ed. Plenum Publishing, pp, 81-104
Pyle, Jean L. 2000, Sex, Maids, and Export Processing :
Risks and Reasons for Gendered
Global Production Networks, International Journal of Politics, Culture,
and Society,Vol.15, No. 1, Risks and Rights in the 21st Century
: Papers from the Women and Gender in Global Perspectives Program Symposium,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Wijers, Marjan
and Lap-Chew, Lin, 1997, Trafficking in
Women: Forced Labour and
Slavery –like Practices in marriage,
Domestic Labour and Prostitution.
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape#Definitions
[2] Klaus A.
Miczek, Joseph F. DeBold, Margaret Haney, Jennifer Tidey, Jeffrey Vivian, Elise
M. Weerts, Alcohol, Drugs of Abuse, Aggression and Violence, Department of
Psychology, Tufts University
[3] Dean G. Kilpatrick, Ph.D.,Heidi S. Resnick, Ph.D.,
Kenneth J. Ruggiero, Ph.D., Lauren M. Conoscenti, M. A., Jenna McCauley, M. S.,
Drug-facilitated, Incapacitated, and Forcible Rape: A National Study, February
1, 2007, NATIONAL CRIME VICTIMS RESEARCH & TREATMENT CENTER
[4] http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/
[5] http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/india/130403/india-enacts-new-tougher-rape-law
[6] http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/New-anti-rape-law-comes-into-force/articleshow/19359543.cms
[7] Explaining India's new anti-rape laws, 28.3.2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-21950197
[9] http://www.498a.org/498aexplained.htm
[10] Gender
Analysis of Indian Penal Code by Ved Kumari. P. 139-160. In Engendering Law:
Essays in Honour of Lotika Sakar edited by Amita Dhanda and Archana Parashar. Lucknow: Eastern Book Company, 34, Lalbagh, Lucknow- 1. 1999.
[11] Ibid
[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labour_in_India
[14] Routasalo P, Isola A., The Right to touch and to be touched, Nurs Ethics. 1996 Jun;3(2):165-76., http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8717880
